From the fall of the Pahlavi dynasty to confrontation with Israel: who was Ali Khamenei and what legacy did he leave?
Supreme Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran Ali Khamenei was killed on February 28 in his residence during a joint U.S.-Israeli strike. Iranian authorities officially confirmed his death on the morning of March 1. A 40-day period of national mourning has been declared.
Khamenei will be remembered as one of the most influential and longest-serving leaders in the modern history of the Middle East. His political career began as a dissident cleric during the rule of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and culminated in more than 36 years at the helm of the Islamic Republic with near-absolute authority.
During his leadership, six presidents came and went, but ultimate power consistently remained in the hands of the Supreme Leader.
Early life and religious education
Ali Khamenei was born on July 17, 1939, in Mashhad into a clerical family. He studied in religious seminaries in Mashhad, Najaf, and Qom, where he was mentored by leading Shiite scholars, including Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the future leader of the Islamic Revolution.
It was in Qom that his political and ideological views were shaped, rooted in the concept of Islamic governance and resistance to Western influence.
Opposition to the shah
In the 1960s and 1970s, Khamenei became active in opposition to the Shah’s regime. He was repeatedly arrested by the SAVAK security service, imprisoned, and exiled. Although close to Khomeini, he was not among his innermost circle before the 1979 revolution.
Rise to power after the revolution
Following the Islamic Revolution of 1979, Khamenei held several key positions, including deputy defense minister and Tehran’s Friday prayer leader. In 1981, after the assassination of President Mohammad Ali Rajai, he was elected president of Iran and served two consecutive terms.
During his presidency, Iran endured the devastating eight-year war with Iraq, which claimed hundreds of thousands of lives.
Becoming Supreme Leader
After Ayatollah Khomeini’s death on June 3, 1989, the Assembly of Experts elected Khamenei as Supreme Leader. Constitutional amendments were introduced to remove the requirement that the leader hold the highest clerical rank of «marja al-taqlid.»
From that point on, Khamenei became the central authority in Iran’s political system, overseeing the armed forces, judiciary, security apparatus, and state media.
Domestic policy and crackdown on dissent
Although Iran maintained formal republican institutions, real power rested with the Supreme Leader and the bodies loyal to him.
Major protests — in 2009 over disputed elections, in 2019 over economic conditions, and in 2022 following the death of Mahsa Amini — were suppressed by security forces. Human rights groups reported hundreds of deaths and thousands of arrests.
Presidents under Ali Khamenei
Although Iran’s president is elected by popular vote, ultimate political authority during Ali Khamenei’s tenure remained concentrated in the hands of the Supreme Leader. Below is an overview of the presidents who served during his leadership.
Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani (1989–1997)
A close ally of Khamenei and one of the principal architects of the Islamic Republic, Rafsanjani oversaw a period described as «economic reconstruction,» marked by privatization, market liberalization, and post-war recovery following the Iran-Iraq conflict.
At the same time, corruption and social inequality increased. Several Iranian dissidents were assassinated abroad during this period, including in Germany, France, and Turkey. The most notable case was the 1992 killing of Kurdish leaders at the Mykonos restaurant in Berlin. A German court later stated that the operation had been authorized by senior Iranian officials, a claim Tehran denied.
Mohammad Khatami (1997–2005)
Khatami was elected on a reform platform advocating a «dialogue of civilizations.» His victory was unexpected, and his early years in office were marked by expanded press freedoms and a more active civil society.
However, his reform efforts eventually faced resistance from conservative institutions aligned with the Supreme Leader, including the Guardian Council, the judiciary, and security bodies. Reformist newspapers were shut down, activists were arrested, and the president’s authority was significantly curtailed.
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (2005–2013)
Ahmadinejad presented himself as a staunch defender of revolutionary principles. His presidency was characterized by rising tensions with the West, strong anti-Israel rhetoric, and continued development of Iran’s nuclear program.
Following the disputed 2009 presidential election, which the opposition described as fraudulent, mass protests erupted across the country. Khamenei publicly supported Ahmadinejad, and the demonstrations were suppressed, resulting in numerous arrests and casualties.
Hassan Rouhani (2013–2021)
A diplomat and negotiator, Rouhani sought to reduce Iran’s international isolation. His most significant achievement was the 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) between Iran and six world powers, aimed at limiting Tehran’s nuclear program in exchange for sanctions relief.
In 2018, however, the United States withdrew from the agreement and reinstated sanctions. Iran’s economy suffered severely, and the national currency depreciated sharply. In January 2020, Iranian General Qassem Soleimani was killed in a U.S. strike in Iraq. Khamenei described the action as «an act of state terrorism.»
Ebrahim Raisi (2021–2024)
Raisi, regarded as a close ally of Khamenei, previously headed the judiciary. During his presidency, the death of 22-year-old Mahsa Amini in September 2022 following her arrest by the morality police sparked widespread protests under the slogan «Women, Life, Freedom.»
The demonstrations lasted for months. According to media and human rights groups, hundreds were killed and thousands detained. In May 2024, Raisi died in a helicopter crash in the mountains of East Azerbaijan. Officials described it as an accident.
Masoud Pezeshkian (since 2024)
A physician and former member of parliament from Tabriz, Pezeshkian won the July 2024 election on a platform advocating dialogue with the West and reduced foreign policy tensions. However, his presidency has also been marked by renewed mass protests.
Despite changes in presidents and shifts in policy emphasis, ultimate authority in Iran for more than three decades remained with Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei.
Confrontation with the United States and the nuclear issue
A defining feature of Khamenei’s leadership was persistent confrontation with the United States. He consistently opposed American influence and supported the development of Iran’s nuclear program.
The 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) temporarily eased tensions, but after the U.S. withdrawal in 2018, Iran significantly increased uranium enrichment levels.
Conflict with Israel
Khamenei maintained a hardline stance toward Israel, backing regional forces opposed to Tel Aviv, including Hezbollah and Hamas.
Following escalating tensions in 2023–2025, hostilities between Iran and Israel evolved into direct military confrontation. On February 28, airstrikes on Tehran destroyed the Supreme Leader’s residence. The 86-year-old Khamenei was killed.
What comes next?
Under Iran’s Constitution, a governing council was established to carry out state duties following the killing of Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. Ayatollah Alireza Arafi, member of a powerful constitutional watchdog, was appointed on March 1 to the temporary council, whose other two members are President Masoud Pezeshkian and Supreme Court Chief Justice Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Ejei. A new leader must be selected by the Assembly of Experts.
Khamenei’s death marks the end of an era in the history of the Islamic Republic. The identity of his successor — and whether Iran chooses confrontation or cautious transformation — will shape the country’s future and the broader balance of power in the Middle East.
Khamenei will be remembered as one of the most influential and longest-serving leaders in the modern history of the Middle East. His political career began as a dissident cleric during the rule of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and culminated in more than 36 years at the helm of the Islamic Republic with near-absolute authority.
During his leadership, six presidents came and went, but ultimate power consistently remained in the hands of the Supreme Leader.
Early life and religious education
Ali Khamenei was born on July 17, 1939, in Mashhad into a clerical family. He studied in religious seminaries in Mashhad, Najaf, and Qom, where he was mentored by leading Shiite scholars, including Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the future leader of the Islamic Revolution.
It was in Qom that his political and ideological views were shaped, rooted in the concept of Islamic governance and resistance to Western influence.
Opposition to the shah
In the 1960s and 1970s, Khamenei became active in opposition to the Shah’s regime. He was repeatedly arrested by the SAVAK security service, imprisoned, and exiled. Although close to Khomeini, he was not among his innermost circle before the 1979 revolution.
Rise to power after the revolution
Following the Islamic Revolution of 1979, Khamenei held several key positions, including deputy defense minister and Tehran’s Friday prayer leader. In 1981, after the assassination of President Mohammad Ali Rajai, he was elected president of Iran and served two consecutive terms.
During his presidency, Iran endured the devastating eight-year war with Iraq, which claimed hundreds of thousands of lives.
Becoming Supreme Leader
After Ayatollah Khomeini’s death on June 3, 1989, the Assembly of Experts elected Khamenei as Supreme Leader. Constitutional amendments were introduced to remove the requirement that the leader hold the highest clerical rank of «marja al-taqlid.»
From that point on, Khamenei became the central authority in Iran’s political system, overseeing the armed forces, judiciary, security apparatus, and state media.
Domestic policy and crackdown on dissent
Although Iran maintained formal republican institutions, real power rested with the Supreme Leader and the bodies loyal to him.
Major protests — in 2009 over disputed elections, in 2019 over economic conditions, and in 2022 following the death of Mahsa Amini — were suppressed by security forces. Human rights groups reported hundreds of deaths and thousands of arrests.
Presidents under Ali Khamenei
Although Iran’s president is elected by popular vote, ultimate political authority during Ali Khamenei’s tenure remained concentrated in the hands of the Supreme Leader. Below is an overview of the presidents who served during his leadership.
Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani (1989–1997)
A close ally of Khamenei and one of the principal architects of the Islamic Republic, Rafsanjani oversaw a period described as «economic reconstruction,» marked by privatization, market liberalization, and post-war recovery following the Iran-Iraq conflict.
At the same time, corruption and social inequality increased. Several Iranian dissidents were assassinated abroad during this period, including in Germany, France, and Turkey. The most notable case was the 1992 killing of Kurdish leaders at the Mykonos restaurant in Berlin. A German court later stated that the operation had been authorized by senior Iranian officials, a claim Tehran denied.
Mohammad Khatami (1997–2005)
Khatami was elected on a reform platform advocating a «dialogue of civilizations.» His victory was unexpected, and his early years in office were marked by expanded press freedoms and a more active civil society.
However, his reform efforts eventually faced resistance from conservative institutions aligned with the Supreme Leader, including the Guardian Council, the judiciary, and security bodies. Reformist newspapers were shut down, activists were arrested, and the president’s authority was significantly curtailed.
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (2005–2013)
Ahmadinejad presented himself as a staunch defender of revolutionary principles. His presidency was characterized by rising tensions with the West, strong anti-Israel rhetoric, and continued development of Iran’s nuclear program.
Following the disputed 2009 presidential election, which the opposition described as fraudulent, mass protests erupted across the country. Khamenei publicly supported Ahmadinejad, and the demonstrations were suppressed, resulting in numerous arrests and casualties.
Hassan Rouhani (2013–2021)
A diplomat and negotiator, Rouhani sought to reduce Iran’s international isolation. His most significant achievement was the 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) between Iran and six world powers, aimed at limiting Tehran’s nuclear program in exchange for sanctions relief.
In 2018, however, the United States withdrew from the agreement and reinstated sanctions. Iran’s economy suffered severely, and the national currency depreciated sharply. In January 2020, Iranian General Qassem Soleimani was killed in a U.S. strike in Iraq. Khamenei described the action as «an act of state terrorism.»
Ebrahim Raisi (2021–2024)
Raisi, regarded as a close ally of Khamenei, previously headed the judiciary. During his presidency, the death of 22-year-old Mahsa Amini in September 2022 following her arrest by the morality police sparked widespread protests under the slogan «Women, Life, Freedom.»
The demonstrations lasted for months. According to media and human rights groups, hundreds were killed and thousands detained. In May 2024, Raisi died in a helicopter crash in the mountains of East Azerbaijan. Officials described it as an accident.
Masoud Pezeshkian (since 2024)
A physician and former member of parliament from Tabriz, Pezeshkian won the July 2024 election on a platform advocating dialogue with the West and reduced foreign policy tensions. However, his presidency has also been marked by renewed mass protests.
Despite changes in presidents and shifts in policy emphasis, ultimate authority in Iran for more than three decades remained with Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei.
Confrontation with the United States and the nuclear issue
A defining feature of Khamenei’s leadership was persistent confrontation with the United States. He consistently opposed American influence and supported the development of Iran’s nuclear program.
The 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) temporarily eased tensions, but after the U.S. withdrawal in 2018, Iran significantly increased uranium enrichment levels.
Conflict with Israel
Khamenei maintained a hardline stance toward Israel, backing regional forces opposed to Tel Aviv, including Hezbollah and Hamas.
Following escalating tensions in 2023–2025, hostilities between Iran and Israel evolved into direct military confrontation. On February 28, airstrikes on Tehran destroyed the Supreme Leader’s residence. The 86-year-old Khamenei was killed.
What comes next?
Under Iran’s Constitution, a governing council was established to carry out state duties following the killing of Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. Ayatollah Alireza Arafi, member of a powerful constitutional watchdog, was appointed on March 1 to the temporary council, whose other two members are President Masoud Pezeshkian and Supreme Court Chief Justice Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Ejei. A new leader must be selected by the Assembly of Experts.
Khamenei’s death marks the end of an era in the history of the Islamic Republic. The identity of his successor — and whether Iran chooses confrontation or cautious transformation — will shape the country’s future and the broader balance of power in the Middle East.
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